Lars Von Trier Essay Example for Free

Lars Von Trier Essay Lars Trier was born in Kongens Lyngby, north of Copenhagen, the son of Inger Trier (nà ©e Hà ¸st, 1915—1989). He had believed that his biological father was Ulf Trier (1907—1978), until his mother revealed to him on her deathbed that he had been conceived as a result of an affair she had with her employer, Fritz Michael Hartmann. His mother considered herself a Communist, while his father was a Social Democrat, and both were committed nudists,[5] and the young Lars went on several childhood holidays to nudist camps. They regarded the disciplining of children as reactionary. Trier has noted that he was brought up in an atheist family, and that although Ulf Trier was Jewish, he was not religious. His parents did not allow much room in their household for feelings, religion, or enjoyment, and also refused to make any rules for their children,[6] with complex results for von Triers personality and development.[7] He began making his own films at the age of 11 after receiving a Super-8 camera as a gift and continued to be involved in independent moviemaking throughout his high school years.[3] In 1979, he was enrolled in the National Film School of Denmark.[8] His peers at the film school nicknamed him von Trier. The name is sort of an inside-joke with the von (German of or from used as a nobiliary particle), suggesting nobility and a certain arrogance, while Lars is a very common and Trier not an unusual name in Denmark.[9] He reportedly kept the von name in homage to Erich von Stroheim and Josef von Sternberg, both of whom also added it later in life.[10] During his time as a student at the school he made the films Nocturne and The Last Detail, both of which won Best Film awards at the Munich International Festival of Film Schools.[11][12] In 1983 he graduated with the 57-minute Images of Liberation, which became the first Danish school film to receive a regular theatrical release.[13] Europe trilogy After graduation he began work on the very stylized crime drama, The Element of Crime (Forbrydelsens element 1984), which won a technical award at the Cannes Film Festival. His next film was Epidemic (1987), which was also shown at Cannes in the Un Certain Regard section. The film is partly a dark science fiction-tale of a future plague epidemic, and partly chronicles two filmmakers (played by Lars von Trier and screenwriter Niels Và ¸rsel) preparing that film, with the two storylines ultimately colliding. For television von Trier directed Medea (1988), which won the Jean dArcy prize in France. It was based on a screenplay by Carl Th. Dreyer and starred Udo Kier. He completed the Europe-trilogy in 1991 with Europa (released as Zentropa in the U.S.), which won the Prix du Jury at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival[14] and picked up awards at other major festivals. In 1990 he also directed the music video for the worldwide hit Bakerman by Laid Back.[15] This video was reused in 2006 by the English DJ and artist Shaun Baker who did a remake of Bakerman. Zentropa and The Kingdom In 1992 he and producer Peter Aalbà ¦k Jensen founded the movie production company Zentropa Entertainment, named after a train company in Europa, their most recent film at the time.[8] The reason for doing this was to achieve financial independence and to have total creative control. The production company has produced many movies other than von Triers own as well as television series. It also has produced hardcore sex films: Constance (1998), Pink Prison (1999), HotMen CoolBoyz (2000) and All About Anna (2005). In order to make money for his newly founded company,[16] he made The Kingdom (Riget, 1994) and The Kingdom II (Riget II, 1997), a pair of miniseries recorded in the Danish national hospital, the name Riget being a colloquial name for the hospital known as Rigshospitalet (lit. The Kingdoms Hospital) in Danish. A projected third installment in the series was derailed by the 1998 death of Ernst-Hugo Jà ¤regà ¥rd, who played Helmer, one of the major characters. Dogme 95 In 1995, Lars von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg presented their manifesto for a new cinematic movement which they called Dogme 95. It would however take a while before the first of these films appeared, and at this point many thought of the concept mainly as a radical idea with no future.[citation needed] In 1996, von Trier conducted an unusual theatrical experiment in Copenhagen involving 53 actors, which he titled Psychomobile 1: The World Clock. A documentary chronicling the project was directed by Jesper Jargil, and was released in 2000 with the title De Udstillede (The Exhibited). Von Triers next film, Breaking the Waves (1996), the first film in von Triers Golden Heart Trilogy, won the Grand Prix at Cannes and featured Emily Watson, who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress. Its grainy images and hand-held photography pointed towards Dogme 95. The second was The Idiots (1998), nominated for a Palme dOr, which he presented in person at the Cannes Film Festival notwithstanding his dislike of travelling. Dancer in the Dark (2000) was the final component of the trilogy. As originator of the Dogme 95 concept, which has led to international interest in Danish film as a whole, he has inspired filmmakers all over the world.[17] Trier and Thomas Vinterberg, who created the Dogme 95 Manifesto and the Vow of Chastity together with their fellow Dogme directors Kristian Levring and Sà ¸ren Kragh-Jacobsen shared in 2008 the European Film Award European Achievement in World Cinema. Explicit images Von Triers use of sexually explicit images in The Idiots (1998) started a wave[citation needed] of arthouse mainstream films with unsimulated sex, such as Catherine Breillats Romance (1999), Baise-Moi (2000), Intimacy (2001), Vincent Gallos The Brown Bunny (2003) and Michael Winterbottoms 9 Songs (2004). In 1998, Lars von Trier also made history by having his company Zentropa be the worlds first mainstream film company to produce hardcore pornographic films. Three of these films, Constance (1998), Pink Prison (1999) and the adult/mainstream crossover-feature All About Anna (2005), were made primarily for a female audience, and were extremely successful in Europe, with the first two being directly responsible for the March 2006 legalizing of pornography in Norway.[18] Women too like to see other people having sex. What they don’t like is the endless close-ups of hammering bodyparts without a story. Lars von Trier is the first to have realised this and produced valuable quality porn films for women. — Stern No. 40, 27 September 2007[19] Lars von Triers initiative spearheaded a European wave of female-friendly porn films from directors such as Anna Span, Erika Lust and Petra Joy, while von Triers company Zentropa was forced to abandon the experiment due to pressure from English business partners.[20] In July 2009, womens magazine Cosmopolitan ranked Pink Prison as No. 1 in its Top Five of the best women’s porn, calling it the role model for the new porn-generation.[21] Lars von Trier would return to explicit images in his self-directed Antichrist (2009), exploring darker themes. 2000s In 2000, von Trier premiered a musical featuring Icelandic musician Bjà ¶rk, Dancer in the Dark. The film won the Palme dOr at Cannes.[22] The song Ive Seen It All (which Trier co-wrote) received an Academy Award nomination for Best Song. The Five Obstructions (2003), made by Lars von Trier and Jà ¸rgen Leth, is a documentary, but also incorporates lengthy sections of experimental films. The premise is that Lars von Trier challenges director Jà ¸rgen Leth, his friend and mentor, to remake his old experimental film The Perfect Human (1967) five times, each time with a different obstruction (or obstacle) specified by von Trier.[23] He then directed two films in his announced U.S. trilogy: Dogville (2003), starring Nicole Kidman and Manderlay (2005), starring Bryce Dallas Howard in the same role – as Grace. Both films are extremely stylized, with the actors playing their parts on a nearly empty soundstage with little but chalk marks on the floor to indicate the sets. Both films had huge casts of major international actors (Harriet Andersson, Lauren Bacall, James Caan, Danny Glover, Willem Dafoe, etc.), and questioned various issues relating to American society, such as intolerance in Dogville and slavery in Manderlay. Controversy erupted on the 2004 set for Manderlay when actor John C. Reilly walked off the Trollhà ¤ttan, Sweden, set in late March. Reilly walked off the film when he learned that an upcoming scene involved the slaughter of a donkey for food. The films producer says the animal—who was old and not expected to live much longer—was killed off-camera by a certified veterinarian, in accordance with Swedish law. Reilly was replaced by Zeljko Ivanek.[24] The U.S. was also the scene for Dear Wendy (2005), a feature film directed by von Triers Dogme-brother Thomas Vinterberg from a script by von Trier. It starred Jamie Bell and Bill Pullman and dealt with gun worship and violence in American society. In 2006, von Trier released a Danish-language comedy film, The Boss of it All. It was shot using a process that von Trier has called Automavision, which involves the director choosing the best possible fixed camera position and then allowing a computer to randomly choose when to tilt, pan or zoom. It was followed by an autobiographical film, De unge à ¥r: Erik Nietzsche sagaen del 1 (2007), scripted by von Trier but directed by Jacob Thuesen, which tells the story of von Triers years as a student at the National Film School of Denmark. It stars Jonatan Spang as von Triers alter ego, called Erik Nietzsche, and is narrated by von Trier himself. All main characters in the film are based on real people from the Danish film industry,[citation needed] with the thinly veiled portrayals including Jens Albinus as director Nils Malmros, Dejan ÄÅ'ukić as screenwriter Mogens Rukov and Sà ¸ren Pilmark in an especially unflattering portrayal as sex-obsessed school principal Henning Camre. Von Triers next feature film was Antichrist, an art film about a grieving couple who retreat to their cabin in the woods, hoping a return to Eden will repair their broken hearts and troubled marriage; but nature takes its course and things go from bad to worse. The film, which includes sexually explicit content, stars Willem Dafoe and Charlotte Gainsbourg. It premiered in competition at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival, where the festivals jury honoured the movie by giving the Best Actress award to Gainsbourg.[25] The Cannes Film Festival Ecumenical Jury, which gives prizes for movies that promote spiritual, humanist and universal values, also honoured the film with a special anti-award; a spokesman for the jury described it as the most misogynist movie from the self-proclaimed biggest director in the world.[26] In 2010 the Swedish newspaper Dagens Nyheter reported on their website that the film production company Zentropa is reportedly making more revenue from suing movie pirates in Germany that have downloaded Antichrist illegally than from box office and DVD sales, demanding a payment of around 1,300 euros per download to avoid legal action.[27] 2010s Von Triers latest work is Melancholia, a psychological disaster drama;[28] shot between 22 July and 8 September 2010 at Film i Và ¤sts studios in Trollhà ¤ttan, Sweden,[29] and with exteriors in the area surrounding the Tjolà ¶holm Castle.[30] Magnolia Pictures has acquired the distribution rights for North America.[31] The film was in competition at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival.[32] Von Trier announced that after finishing Melancholia he hopes to begin production of The Nymphomaniac, a two-part film about the sexual awakening of a woman (Charlotte Gainsbourg).[33] The director explained how he got the idea for the upcoming project: my DP on [Melancholia], Manuel Claro, at one point voiced a surprising prejudice. He urged me not to fall into the trap that so many aging directors fall into – that the women get younger and younger and nuder and nuder. Thats all I needed to hear. I most definitely intend for the women in my films to get younger and younger and nuder and nuder .[34] The announced cast includes Gainsbourg, Stellan Skarsgà ¥rd, Shia LaBeouf, Willem Dafoe, Connie Nielsen, Jamie Bell, Jens Albinus, Jesper Christensen and Nicole Kidman. Phobias Von Trier suffers from multiple phobias, including an intense fear of flying.[35] His fear of air travel frequently places severely limiting constraints on him and his crew, necessitating that virtually all of his films be shot in either Denmark or Sweden, even those set in the United States or other foreign countries. Von Trier has had a number of his films featured at the Cannes Film Festival over the course of his career, and each time has insisted on driving from Denmark to France for the festival and back. On numerous occasions von Trier has also stated that he suffers from occasional depression which renders him incapable of performing his work and unable to fulfill social obligations.[36] Filming techniques Lars von Trier has said that a film should be like a stone in your shoe. In order to create original art he feels that filmmakers must distinguish themselves stylistically from other films, often by placing restrictions on the filmmaking process. The most famous restriction is the cinematic vow of chastity of the Dogme95 movement with which he is associated, though only one of his films, The Idiots, is an actual Dogme 95 film. In Dancer in the Dark, jump shots[37] and dramatically-different color palettes and camera techniques were used for the real world and musical portions of the film, and in Dogville everything was filmed on a sound stage with no set where the walls of the buildings in the fictional town were marked as lines on the floor. Von Trier often shoots digitally and operates the camera himself, preferring to continuously shoot the actors in-character without stopping between takes. In Dogville he let actors stay in character for hours, in the style of method acting. These techniques often put great strain on actors, most famously with Bjà ¶rk during the filming of Dancer in the Dark. Often he uses the same regular group of actors in many of his films: some of his frequently used actors are Jean-Marc Barr, Udo Kier and Stellan Skarsgà ¥rd. He is heavily influenced by the work of Carl Theodor Dreyer[38] and the film The Night Porter.[39] He was so inspired by the short film The Perfect Human directed by Jà ¸rgen Leth that he challenged Leth to redo the short five times in feature film The Five Obstructions.[40] Trilogies Von Trier has on occasion referred to his films as falling into thematic and stylistic trilogies. This pattern began with his first feature film, marking the beginning of The Europa Trilogy, though he claims a trilogy was not initially planned, instead being applied to the films in retrospect. The Europe trilogy illuminated the traumas of Europe in the past and future. This trilogy includes The Element of Crime (1984), Epidemic (1987) and Europa (1991). The Golden Heart trilogy was about naive heroines who maintain their golden hearts despite the tragedies they experience. This trilogy consists of Breaking the Waves (1996), The Idiots (1998) and Dancer in the Dark (2000). While all three films are sometimes associated with the Dogme 95 movement, only The Idiots is a certified Dogme 95 film. The USA: Land of Opportunities trilogy follows the character of Grace, and is set in a stylized American past. Von Trier has stated he was inspired to make a trilogy about the United States as a reaction to Americans at the Cannes film festival who said he had no right to make the Dancer in the Dark,[8] which was often viewed as being critical of a country he has never been to (and has no intention of ever visiting, due to his phobia of travel); however, von Trier himself has stated in interviews he did not intend it to be a criticism of America, saying the film takes place in a fictional America. Von Trier proposed the films as ‘a series of sermons on America’s sins and hypocrisy’[citation needed], inspired by the fact that American movie makers have made many movies about places across the world to which they have not travelled. All three movies will be shot in the same distinctive style, on a bare sound stage with no set and buildings marked by lines on the floor. This style is inspired by 1970s televised theatre. The trilogy will consist of Dogville (2003), Manderlay (2005) and the so far not produced Washington. The Depression Trilogy consists of Antichrist, Melancholia and the yet to be completed, Nymphomaniac. All three star Charlotte Gainsbourg and deal with characters that deal with depression or grief in different ways. This trilogy is said to represent the current depression that von Trier himself is currently going through. The Kingdom (Riget) was planned as a trilogy of three seasons with 13 episodes in total, but the third season was not filmed due to death of star Ernst-Hugo Jà ¤regà ¥rd shortly after completion of the second season. Biological father In 1989, von Triers mother revealed on her deathbed that the man who he thought was his father was not, and that she had had a tryst with her former employer, Fritz Michael Hartmann (1909–2000),[41] who descended from a long line of Roman Catholic classical musicians (his grandfather was Emil Hartmann, his great grandfather J.P.E. Hartmann, his uncles included Niels Gade and Johan Ernst Hartmann and thus Niels Viggo Bentzon was his cousin). She stated that she did this in order to give her son artistic genes.[42] Until that point I thought I had a Jewish background. But Im really more of a Nazi. I believe that my biological fathers German family went back two further generations. Before she died, my mother told me to be happy that I was the son of this other man. She said my foster father had had no goals and no strength. But he was a loving man. And I was very sad about this revelation. And you then feel manipulated when you really do turn out to be creative. If Id known that my mother had this plan, I would have become something else. I would have shown her. The slut![43] During the German occupation of Denmark, Fritz Michael Hartmann worked as a civil servant and joined a resistance group (Frit Danmark), actively counteracting any pro-German and pro-Nazi colleagues in his department.[44] Another member of this infiltrative resistance group was Hartmanns colleague Viggo Kampmann, who would later become prime minister of Denmark.[45] After four awkward meetings with his biological father, the man refused further contact.[46] The revelations led von Trier to attempt to erase the connections with his stepfather by converting to Catholicism, and to rework his filmmaking into a style emphasizing honesty.[3] I dont know if Im all that Catholic really. Im probably not. Denmark is a very Protestant country. Perhaps I only turned Catholic to piss off a few of my countrymen.[43] In 2009, he declared, Im a very bad Catholic. In fact Im becoming more and more of an atheist.[47] Controversy at 2011 Cannes Film Festival On 19 May 2011, Cannes Film Festivals board of directors declared von Trier persona non grata for comments he made during a press conference for his film Melancholia the day before, an unprecedented move for the film festival.[48][49] Responding to a question by The Times film critic Kate Muir about his German roots and his comments in a Danish film magazine about the Nazi aesthetic, von Trier claimed to have some sympathy for and understanding of Adolf Hitler,[50] and then jokingly claimed to be a Nazi himself:[51][52] Von Trier at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival. What can I say? I understand Hitler, but I think he did some wrong things, yes, absolutely. Hes not what you would call a good guy, but I understand much about him, and I sympathize with him a little bit. But come on, Im not for the Second World War, and Im not against Jews. I am of course very much for Jews, no not too much, because Israel is pain in the ass, but still how can I get out of this sentence. — Press Conference for Melancholia, Cannes, 2011[53][54] Referring to the art of Nazi architect Albert Speer, von Trier added: he had some talent that was kind of possible for him to use during Ok, Im a Nazi. Then, to Toronto Star film critic Peter Howell, who questioned whether Melancholia could be an answer to Hollywood blockbusters and asked von Trier if he could â€Å"envision doing a film on a grander scale than this†, von Trier replied: On a grander scale? Yeah. Yeah thats what we Nazis, we have a tendency to do things on a greater scale. Yeah, maybe you could persuade me into the final solution with journalists. Hours later, von Trier released a brief statement of apology about his comments at the press conference: If I have hurt someone this morning by the words I said at the press conference, I sincerely apologise. I am not anti-semitic or racially prejudiced in any way, nor am I a Nazi.[55] The next day, the festival directors held an extraordinary meeting, deciding his remarks were unacceptable, intolerable and contrary to the ideals of humanity and generosity that preside over the very existence of the festival. [] The board of directors condemns these comments and declares Lars von Trier persona non grata at the Festival de Cannes, with effect immediately.[55] Afterwards, von Trier held a news conference of his own in Danish. His first remark to the Danish journalists was: If any of you journalists will beat me, so just do it. I will enjoy it. He went on to say that The Holocaust is the worst crime that ever happened. I have nothing against Jews. I have a Jewish name, and all my children have Jewish names. He admitted that his remarks about the Nazis had been misguided, saying It was really stupidly done and it was in the wrong forum. At the press conference with Danish journalists, there were no problems, but I do not think the international journalists understand my Danish humor. But he also said he was proud to have been kicked out of the Cannes festival: I am proud to have been declared persona non grata. It is perhaps the first time in cinematic history, it has happened. I think one reason is that French people treated the Jews badly during World War II. Therefore, it is a sensitive topic for them. I respect the Cannes festival very highly, but I also understand that they are very angry at me right now.[56][55] Speaking to other news outlets he said that his comments were very sarcastic and very rude, but thats very Danish. He also added, I dont sympathize with Hitler for one second.[57] In the October 2011 issue of GQ, von Trier is quoted in an interview saying he was not really sorry for the comments he made, only sorry he didnt make it clear that he was joking. He added, I cant be sorry for what I said—its against my nature.[58] On 5 October 2011, von Trier was interviewed by police in Denmark about his remarks at Cannes. Afterwards, he announced that he had decided from this day forth to refrain from all public statements and interviews.[59] Honours Von Trier was made a Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog on 14 January 1997.[60] Ten years later von Trier decided to hand back the prize, saying that the Danish royal family are just simple people of bad quality.[61]

Knowledge Management in Malaysia

Knowledge Management in Malaysia CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 OVERVIEW It is so difficult and though for the managers of the organizations to apply knowledge management in their departments, because this major is still new in so many aspects such as business environment and organizational culture or behavior and it has a long way to be completed. It is hard for the managers to believe that, it has so many benefits if they use knowledge management tools in their organizations. Managers should bear in their mind that knowledge management is not an automatic practice, it must be initiated by people and have the support of the whole organization. Something like these myths need to be eliminated and the exact meaning of knowledge management must be clearly understood by managers and the rest of the organizations. This will help the managers to abundantly getting help from knowledge management and apply it in the organizations (Sobahle 2005). The study on American Productivity and Quality Centers International Bench-marking shows that, about 11 organizations are working on the knowledge management area which are: Arthur Andersen; Chevron Corporation; Dow Chemical Company; Hughes Space Communications; Kaiser Permanente; Price Waterhouse; Sequent Computer Systems; Skandia AFS; Texas Instruments; USAA; and National Security Agency, the following was recognized (Ishak, 2002): Share the understanding those techniques which can be used. Apply the techniques to new directions. Further more, the other issues which can assure the success of knowledge management initiatives are something like, emphasizes on the issues such as employees issues, top management leadership and commitment, organizational culture and technological infrastructure. This chapter approaches the literature review on knowledge management. In this chapter the try is made to clarify some of the most important key factors of knowledge management and analyze their respective literature. The attempt is made to show the different aspects of knowledge management. It has a brief introduction on knowledge management which is used by Malaysian organizations then it will be explain about the knowledge management frame works and architectures. In this chapter the most two important factors in knowledge management which, technological approach and human approach, are considered. This chapter will finish by the knowledge management concern, issues and at last discuss about the benefit of knowledge management will be considered. 2.2 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA Over past two decades Malaysia has been transitioning from relying on a production based- economy to a knowledge-based economy (Chang, 2005). The concept of knowledge management in Malaysia was born with the establishment of the â€Å"Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC)† in 1990s to accelerate this concept in Malaysia. Actually, there are so many Malaysian companies which they are working on knowledge management and they realize and understand the importance of it in the professional life. In January 15, 2002, one of the prestigious magazines in Malaysia, Computerworld Malaysia organized the Knowledge Management Roundtable ‘A Vital Strategy or Expensive Toy. The participants from various sectors in Malaysia shared their point of views and approaches implemented and exchanged ideas in practicing knowledge management (Chang, 2005). As an example for the practical aspect, there are a number of organizations in Malaysia which are successful in knowledge management initiatives, such as: Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS), MAMPU, Bank Negara Malaysia, Siemens, Nokia Malaysia and Telekom Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional Berhad and Petroleum Nasional Berhad (Petronas) are examples of organizations in Malaysia that have embarked on KM initiatives. There are so many studies on knowledge management in Malaysia, and the structure of Malaysia papers in Malaysia seems to be incomprehensive, there are a few number of out standing articles to mention, which shows in table 2.1. Table 2.1: Knowledge Management: Malaysian Studies Title Author/ Date/Journal Nature of Work Intellectual capital and business performance in Malaysian industries Bontis, Chua Richardson (2000) Journal of Intellectual Capital Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in healthcare: towards ‘knowledge-driven decision- support services Abidi, (2001) International Journal of Medical Informatics Case Study (Universiti Sains Malaysia Hospital located in Kota Baharu, Malaysia) Managing human resources toward achieving knowledge management Yahya Goh, (2002) Journal of Knowledge Management Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in a public organization: a study on the relationship between organizational elements and the performance of knowledge transfer. Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Journal of Knowledge Management Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) Benchmarking knowledge management in a public organization in Malaysia Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Benchmarking: An International Journal Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) An empirical study of perceived importance and actual implementation of knowledge management process in the Malaysian telecommunication industry Chong Yeow, (2005) Proceedings of ICTM Research Study (Study among Malaysian telecommunication Industry KM critical success factors: A comparison of perceived importance versus implementation in Malaysian ICT companies. Chong, (2006) The Learning Organization Research Study (194 Malaysian ICT companies) KM implementation in Malaysian telecommunication industry an empirical analysis. Wei, Choy Yeow, (2006) Industrial Management Data Systems Research Study (289 employees working in Telecommunication organizations in Malaysia) KM implementation and its influence on performance: an empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong, (2006) Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) Exploring KM issues and KM performance outcomes: empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong Lin (2006) International Journal of Technology Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) An exploratory study on knowledge management adoption in the Malaysian Industry. Wong, (2008) International Journal of Business Information Systems Research Study (exploratory KM survey conducted in the Malaysian industry) 2.3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORKS According to Von Krogh (1998), which he takes a business perspective stating that KMS help increase competitiveness, the purpose of implementing KMS in organizations are various. KMS leads to grater innovation and responsiveness, Hackbarth (1998). Davenport and Prusak (1998) provide three reasons why KMS are implemented in organizations which are as follows: Ø To enhance visibility of knowledge in organizations through the use of maps, hypertexts, yellow pages, directories etc. Ø To build a knowledge sharing culture i.e. create avenues for employees to share knowledge. Ø To develop a knowledge infrastructure, not confined to technology solely, rather create an environment that permits collaborative work. These three things which were proposed by Davenport and Prusak (1998) imply that KMS can support an organization in planning for and dealing with emergencies. Many organizations are still wrestling with their knowledge management and failing to realize its full potential. This is due to their lack of the support of strong theoretical foundation to guide them in its implementation (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Unfortunately, many organizations do not have a clear knowledge management implementation plan in mind (Liebowitz, 1999). Therefore, in order for an organization to be victorious in its effort to manage knowledge, a guiding framework is essential. This is why in this part a review of diverse knowledge management implementation frameworks and models is presented. The framework consents to researchers as well as practitioners to measure the current state of knowledge management effectively and systematically. Thus, the knowledge management framework should provide not only a unified view of knowledge management phenomena but also help investigators study the field of knowledge management in an organized way. There have been few efforts to de velop a framework of knowledge management. However, none of the frameworks can provide a complete and generalized frame for knowledge management by defining fundamental attributes of knowledge management and their interrelationships because knowledge management can be viewed differently on ones background and interests (Chong, 2005). To know the exact value of knowledge management, an architecture of it, would provide the necessary understanding of different components like, knowledge management activities, knowledge management resources, knowledge management influences (Holsapple Joshi, 1997). The improvement of a framework is to follow and track the progress and maturity of knowledge management of an enterprise, so, it would serve to support the industry-wide improvement of knowledge management programs. Further more, it would provide an acceptable frame of reference for the assessment of the adequacies of an organization by government, commercial customers and prime contractors (Chong, 2005). The knowledge management frameworks can be classified under four categories (Table 2.2) Which are namely, knowledge creation framework, knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management, cases on knowledge management initiatives in industry and high-level knowledge management frameworks. Table 2.2: KM Frameworks and their examples in the literature Knowledge Management Frameworks Examples Knowledge Creation Framework Nonaka(1991, 1994), Nonaka Takeuchi (1995) Knowledge Cycle Processes of KM Bose Sugumaran (2003) Cases on KM Initiatives in Industry Apostolou Mentzas (1998), Lai chu (2002) High-Level KM Frameworks Holsapple Joshi (2002), Jarrar (2002), Wiig (1997) Nonaka and Takeuchi are tried to explain the progress and adaption between tacit and explicit knowledge. In fact, knowledge creation framework is not a knowledge management framework, the reason is, and it only deals with the creation of knowledge which is only a share of what constitutes knowledge management. Also, the knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management frameworks are providing a set of activities where the prominence is on the knowledge cycle processes or activities. They mainly address the phases of knowledge flow (from creation to application) in an organization without providing guidance on how to implement knowledge management. The framework on knowledge management initiatives in industry provide a reference to facilitate the structuring, analysis and evaluation of the knowledge management initiatives undertaken in various case companies. Lastly, High-Level knowledge management frameworks are the ones providing more detailed directions on the implementation of kn owledge management. This type of framework seems to address not only the question of what is but also how to because it prescribes and suggest ways for organizations to engage in knowledge management activities (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). In their review of literature, Wong and Aspinwall, try to have an organized review of the various available frameworks for knowledge management implementation. The acceptable thing for the review was to classify the knowledge management implementation frameworks, find out the short comings of each and finally suggesting a through guide line for developing knowledge management implementation frameworks. They have classified the high level knowledge management frameworks as frameworks such as: 1) System approach, 2) Step approach, 3) hybrid approach.(Table 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 shows the comparisons between frameworks under each approach). Table 2.3: Comparisons of system approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Holsapple Joshi (2002) Jarrar (2002) Gore Gore (1999) Wiig et al. (1997) Plan - Set strategic priority Define and understand knowledge Formulate vision Conceptualize Reflect Execute - - - Act Evaluate - - - Review Knowledge Types / resources Knowledge embedded in participants, culture, infrastructure, artifacts, purpose and strategy - Tacit Knowledge Explicit knowledge - KM processes / activities Acquire, select, internalize and use knowledge Collect, present, distribute and measure knowledge Mainly focuses on knowledge creation and externalization Develop, distribute, combine and consolidate knowledge KM influences / factors Resource influences, managerial influences, environmental influences Knowledge environment - External and internal developments ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.4: Comparisons of step approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) McCampbell et al. (1999) Wiig (1999) Plan Form powerful coalition Communicate vision of KM Establish teams for needs assessment Analyze the needs of KM Obtain management buy-in Survey and map the knowledge landscape Plan the knowledge strategy Create and define knowledge-related alternatives and potential initiatives Portray benefit expectations for knowledge management initiatives Set knowledge management priorities Determine key knowledge requirements Execute Identify and collect knowledge Design a technological structure Test the technology Maintenance of the technology Retest the technology Training of knowledge workers Roll out the use of KM practices Make systems go live Acquire key knowledge Create integrated knowledge transfer programs Transform, distribute and apply knowledge assets Establish and update a KM infrastructure Manage knowledge assets Construct incentive programs Coordinate KM activities and functions enterprise-wide Facilitate knowledge-focused management Evaluate Track usage Measure quality and productivity Measure the performance of KM practices Conduct a need assessment review Monitor knowledge management Knowledge type / resources Internal knowledge External knowledge Can be inferred from the step: â€Å" manage knowledge assets † KM processes / activities Identify and collect knowledge Acquire, transform, distribute and apply knowledge KM influences / factors - Can be inferred from the steps: ‘construct incentive programs and ‘facilitate knowledge-focused management ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.5: Comparisons of hybrid approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Rubenstein Montano et al. (2001) Mentzas (2001) Plan Strategize, Model Awareness plan Execute Act, Transfer Develop, operate Evaluate Revise Measurement Knowledge types / resources Tacit knowledge, Explicit knowledge Knowledge assets KM processes / activities KM tasks Process KM influences / factors Culture, Strategy, learning Strategy, Structure, System By study on these knowledge frameworks creator an absolute knowledge management implementation framework may include the possible accesses on success of knowledge management. Further more, the obstacles and developers should bear in their mind that if they want to analyze managers in regard with, which elements are likely to disrupt the knowledge management implementation success and which elements may enable their effort towards knowledge management achievements. Finally, a knowledge management implementation frame work should â€Å"make a correspondence view among social and technological approach to knowledge management†. Consideration of the authors demonstrate that most of the time this correspondence is disturb in favor of one approach while the other approach is either totally neglected or received incomplete attention (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Different types of knowledge resources are identified. The activities and processes which can help to manage them should be mentioned in the knowledge management implementation framework. As an example, there is some of knowledge management processes such as: acquiring, capturing, creating, organizing, storing, accessing, transferring, sharing, applying, distributing and using knowledge. The suggested clues by Wong and Aspinwall for developing a knowledge management implementation framework include five factors, which are as follows: (1) Incorporate a clear structure to organize the tasks. (2) Address the different knowledge resources or types. (3) Include the knowledge management processes or activities that manipulate the knowledge. (4) Point out the influences that can affect the performance of knowledge management. (5) Provide a balanced view between a technological and a social perspective. 2.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION 2.4.1 Knowledge Management System Definition Knowledge management system (KMS), are mostly IT based systems for managing knowledge in organizations and are used for supporting, creating, capturing and disseminating of information. The main concept of knowledge management system (KMS) is to make a facility for employees to have an access to the organizations information, sources, document base facts and their solutions. As a matter of fact a knowledge management system (KMS) could be any of the following things: Ø Social computing tools which can help to create a knowledge management system (KMS). Ø Knowledge management system (KMS), assist in creating network maps in organizations which is used in communication among individuals and entities. Ø Document based, any formatted that permits, control, manage. Ø Use Artificial Intelligence (AI), for customized representation schema to demonstrate the problem domain. Further more, the benefits of using knowledge management in organization can be categorized as: 1. Valuable organizational data and information sharing. 2. Reduce redundant work. 3. Decrease time for new incomers like new employees. 4. Retention of intellectual property. Based on this definition Gupta and Sharma (2004) divide knowledge management system into seven major categories, which are as follows (tables 2.6): Table 2.6: Example of KMS Source: Gupta and Sharma (2004) KMS Technology Description Expert Systems, artificial intelligence and knowledge based management system (KBMS) Main purpose of these systems is to capture knowledge and perform analysis on existing knowledge base to assist in decision making. Often associated to rule based and pattern recognition systems. Computer Supported Collaborative Work (Groupware) Systems that permit sharing and collaborative work. Often described synonymously to Lotus Notes. However, one could suggest that asynchronous (e-mail, wikis e-log) and synchronous systems (videoconference, chat) are newer applications that can fall into this category (Bates and Poole, 2003). Groupware can also include Group Support Systems (GSS) that is intended to support groups make decision (Mandviwalla, 1994). Document Management Systems Systems that support the need for managing text and images to make information much more accessible. Similar to the idea of office management systems i.e. use of various word documentation and spreadsheet software. Decision support systems (DSS) Business applications that usually contain summaries of large amounts of data, filtered and synthesized particularly to support strategic decision-making. View records related to this term5. The focus of DSS is on analysis of quantitative data and presentation tools for managers. Semantic Networks The focus is on systems that explain not just relationships between entities but the meaning based on how the entities are structured. Can be used to â€Å"represent domain knowledge explicitly and shared† (Gupta and Sharma, 2004). Relational and Object oriented databases Systems that permit management of both structured (relational) and much more complex data sets (OODBMS) Simulation tools Systems that run computer based simulations for a variety of purposes. 2.4.2 Knowledge Management Architecture Base on Gupta and Sharma (2004) findings, they suggest architecture for knowledge management which has seven levels and it is shown in table 2.7. Table 2.7: Overview of Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Form Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Level Key Activities Customer Knowledge Detailed, knowledge sharing relationships. Understanding the requirements of customers. Identifying new opportunities. Stakeholder Relationships Becoming a better knowledge flows among suppliers, shareholders, employees, community, etc. Use this knowledge to inform key points strategies. Business Environment Insights Systematic environmental scanning including political, economic, technology, social and environmental trends. Competitor analysis. Market intelligence systems. Organizational Memory Knowledge sharing. Best practice databases. Directories of expertise. Online documents, procedures and discussion forums. Intranets. Knowledge in Processes Embedding knowledge into business processes and management. Decision-making. Knowledge in Products and Services Knowledge embedded in products. Surround products with knowledge, e.g., in user guides, and enhanced knowledge intensive services. Knowledge in People Knowledge-sharing fairs. Innovation workshops. Expert and learning networks. Communities of knowledge practice. As it shows above there is a seven layer for knowledge management architecture and each level related to a particular aspect of knowledge management. So, in this regard there is a summarization for this table which summarize the important part of this layers and compact it in just three layers, it is summarized in table 2.8 as follows: Table 2.8: Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Layer Level Brief Explanation Data Sources layer According to different data sources which are accessible within organizations, this layer has both internal and external data sources. As an example, data repository, email repository, databases. Knowledge Management Layer The processes of knowledge management layer include acquisition, refinement, storage, retrieval, distribution and presentation of required knowledge. An example would be a knowledge base which assists decision making processes during an emergency situation. Knowledge Presentation Layer This layer represents the interface that forms the basis of interaction between users and the system. This can be called a knowledge portal that can guide decision making in dealing with an emergency situation. The knowledge portal can be designed to support communication, collaboration and information sharing requirement. There is two more explanation in detailed view for knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process model. The most important part in knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process are capturing knowledge, create a new knowledge, share it and distribute it as it is shown in 2.1 and 2.2. 2.4.3 Performance of Information Technology (IT) in Knowledge Management System (KMS) Information Technology (IT), plays an important role in acquire, store, disseminate and manage knowledge than ever before. Alavi and Leidner (2001), proposed an admired framework, which can be used to analyze and test the role of Information technology (IT) in design and fulfillment of any Knowledge Management System (KMS). The table (2.9) which is adapted from Alavi and Leidner (2001), shows the different perspectives of knowledge management initiatives and knowledge management system (KMS), design particularly. Table 2.9: Knowledge Perspective and impact on KM and KMS Source: Alavi and Leidner (2001, p.11) Perspective Meaning Implication for KM Impact on KMS Role in IT Knowledge vis-à  -vis data and information Data is consider as a fact, raw numbers, information is processed/ contextual data/ interpreted data knowledge is personalized information e.g this would entail once experience and exposure. KM initiative should expose employees to relevant information and facilitate assimilation of information. KMS may not necessarily be different from an existing information system. The differences are that any KMS should help employees assimilate the information. Role of IT is to ensure KMS design permits information assimilation. Knowledge as a state of the mind Knowledge is ones state of knowing and understanding. KM initiative should provide an information base that enables individuals to recognize the existence of knowledge. This can enhance individual learning and understanding. Accessibility to where knowledge resides rather than to knowledge itself- i.e. provide a means to an end. This would include web and wireless access to knowledge base. Knowledge as an object Knowledge that is stored and subject to manipulation. KM initiative should permit development and management of knowledge base. IT can support KMS to gather, store, and disseminate knowledge. This would include the use collaborative tools e.g. wikis. Knowledge as a process Knowledge visualized as a process of applying expertise. KM initiative should focus on effective flow of knowledge within the realms of knowledge creation, sharing and dissemination. by providing links to various knowledge sources which includes internal and external sources. This would include use of web based systems, hyperlinks, markup languages and access to databases. The idea is to offer a wider breadth and depth of knowledge flows Knowledge and accessibility to information Knowledge is a condition of access to information. KM initiative should provide ease of access to and retrieval of content in a given system. IT can be used to enhance indexing, query and locating relevant information. Knowledge as a capability As a capability knowledge has the potential to influence action. KM initiative should focus on developing core competencies and understanding the strategic intent of the initiative. It can increase the intellectual capital through development of individual and organizational competencies. Table 2.9 proposed that Information technology plays an important role in knowledge management initiatives in organizations. Alavi and Leidner (2001) defined a knowledge management system (KMS) as IT- based system develop to support and enhance the organizational processes of knowledge creation. They observe that not all knowledge management initiatives will implement an IT solution, but they support IT as an enabler of knowledge management (Raman, M. Muthaiyah, S.). In addition, knowledge management system (KMS) can assist organizations in dealing with dynamic and complex situations such as emergencies (Gupta Sharma, 2004). 2.4.4 Appropriate Theories to Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) This part consists of two theories which can help to design and implement decisions of any knowledge management systems (KMS) to support knowledge management in organizations. Those mentioned theories are, Information Processing Theory (IPT), and, Contingency Theory. 2.4.4.1 Information Processing Theory (IPT) George A. Miller (1956), has afforded two theoretical ideas which are the basic concepts of the information processing framework and cognitive psychology. The first approach is â€Å"chunking† and the capacity of short term memory. He insists that short term memory can get just 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). A chunk could refer to digits, words, peoples faces or any other meaningful units. The second idea which Miller was mentioned is people process information akin to a computerized system. They take input into the memory like the computer, then the human minds take the information, analyze it, store the content and locate it in the best situation of memory and then retrieve as and when needed based on the given situation. In this context, Burnell (2004), state that:†As diversity of resources, processes or outputs increase inter process coordination requirements and system complexity increase. As uncertainty increases, information processing requirements increases become of managements inability to predict every situation.† Information processing theory is widely applied in the study of human learning and cognitive styles (Miller, 1960). As a matter of fact Information Processing Theory (IPT) has some principles which are often applied by instructors for the following reasons: Ø Gain the students attention Ø Point out important and critical chunks of information, separating them from trivial ones. Ø Provide opportunities for students in linking new to existing information. Ø Presenting information in clear manner. Ø Emphasize on meaning of information i.e. not memorizing them. Actually, those mentioned principles for information processing theory can be applied to design of knowledge management system (KMS) to support emergency preparedness as well (Kostman, 2004). Particularly, in approaching emergency situations, knowledge management system can be elaborated to enable decision makers to: Ø Retrieve information that is critical, quickly. Ø Focus on the situation without being loss amidst voluminous information. Ø Create and share a knowledge base by linking past experience to existing information base. Ø Structure emergency related information clearly. Ø Understand different meaning and interpretation of critical terminology used in dealing with an emergency. 2.4.4.2 Contingency Theory Contingency theory was founded by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), in the study of ten firms in plastic, food, containers, which are three different i Knowledge Management in Malaysia Knowledge Management in Malaysia CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 OVERVIEW It is so difficult and though for the managers of the organizations to apply knowledge management in their departments, because this major is still new in so many aspects such as business environment and organizational culture or behavior and it has a long way to be completed. It is hard for the managers to believe that, it has so many benefits if they use knowledge management tools in their organizations. Managers should bear in their mind that knowledge management is not an automatic practice, it must be initiated by people and have the support of the whole organization. Something like these myths need to be eliminated and the exact meaning of knowledge management must be clearly understood by managers and the rest of the organizations. This will help the managers to abundantly getting help from knowledge management and apply it in the organizations (Sobahle 2005). The study on American Productivity and Quality Centers International Bench-marking shows that, about 11 organizations are working on the knowledge management area which are: Arthur Andersen; Chevron Corporation; Dow Chemical Company; Hughes Space Communications; Kaiser Permanente; Price Waterhouse; Sequent Computer Systems; Skandia AFS; Texas Instruments; USAA; and National Security Agency, the following was recognized (Ishak, 2002): Share the understanding those techniques which can be used. Apply the techniques to new directions. Further more, the other issues which can assure the success of knowledge management initiatives are something like, emphasizes on the issues such as employees issues, top management leadership and commitment, organizational culture and technological infrastructure. This chapter approaches the literature review on knowledge management. In this chapter the try is made to clarify some of the most important key factors of knowledge management and analyze their respective literature. The attempt is made to show the different aspects of knowledge management. It has a brief introduction on knowledge management which is used by Malaysian organizations then it will be explain about the knowledge management frame works and architectures. In this chapter the most two important factors in knowledge management which, technological approach and human approach, are considered. This chapter will finish by the knowledge management concern, issues and at last discuss about the benefit of knowledge management will be considered. 2.2 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA Over past two decades Malaysia has been transitioning from relying on a production based- economy to a knowledge-based economy (Chang, 2005). The concept of knowledge management in Malaysia was born with the establishment of the â€Å"Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC)† in 1990s to accelerate this concept in Malaysia. Actually, there are so many Malaysian companies which they are working on knowledge management and they realize and understand the importance of it in the professional life. In January 15, 2002, one of the prestigious magazines in Malaysia, Computerworld Malaysia organized the Knowledge Management Roundtable ‘A Vital Strategy or Expensive Toy. The participants from various sectors in Malaysia shared their point of views and approaches implemented and exchanged ideas in practicing knowledge management (Chang, 2005). As an example for the practical aspect, there are a number of organizations in Malaysia which are successful in knowledge management initiatives, such as: Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS), MAMPU, Bank Negara Malaysia, Siemens, Nokia Malaysia and Telekom Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional Berhad and Petroleum Nasional Berhad (Petronas) are examples of organizations in Malaysia that have embarked on KM initiatives. There are so many studies on knowledge management in Malaysia, and the structure of Malaysia papers in Malaysia seems to be incomprehensive, there are a few number of out standing articles to mention, which shows in table 2.1. Table 2.1: Knowledge Management: Malaysian Studies Title Author/ Date/Journal Nature of Work Intellectual capital and business performance in Malaysian industries Bontis, Chua Richardson (2000) Journal of Intellectual Capital Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in healthcare: towards ‘knowledge-driven decision- support services Abidi, (2001) International Journal of Medical Informatics Case Study (Universiti Sains Malaysia Hospital located in Kota Baharu, Malaysia) Managing human resources toward achieving knowledge management Yahya Goh, (2002) Journal of Knowledge Management Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in a public organization: a study on the relationship between organizational elements and the performance of knowledge transfer. Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Journal of Knowledge Management Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) Benchmarking knowledge management in a public organization in Malaysia Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Benchmarking: An International Journal Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) An empirical study of perceived importance and actual implementation of knowledge management process in the Malaysian telecommunication industry Chong Yeow, (2005) Proceedings of ICTM Research Study (Study among Malaysian telecommunication Industry KM critical success factors: A comparison of perceived importance versus implementation in Malaysian ICT companies. Chong, (2006) The Learning Organization Research Study (194 Malaysian ICT companies) KM implementation in Malaysian telecommunication industry an empirical analysis. Wei, Choy Yeow, (2006) Industrial Management Data Systems Research Study (289 employees working in Telecommunication organizations in Malaysia) KM implementation and its influence on performance: an empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong, (2006) Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) Exploring KM issues and KM performance outcomes: empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong Lin (2006) International Journal of Technology Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) An exploratory study on knowledge management adoption in the Malaysian Industry. Wong, (2008) International Journal of Business Information Systems Research Study (exploratory KM survey conducted in the Malaysian industry) 2.3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORKS According to Von Krogh (1998), which he takes a business perspective stating that KMS help increase competitiveness, the purpose of implementing KMS in organizations are various. KMS leads to grater innovation and responsiveness, Hackbarth (1998). Davenport and Prusak (1998) provide three reasons why KMS are implemented in organizations which are as follows: Ø To enhance visibility of knowledge in organizations through the use of maps, hypertexts, yellow pages, directories etc. Ø To build a knowledge sharing culture i.e. create avenues for employees to share knowledge. Ø To develop a knowledge infrastructure, not confined to technology solely, rather create an environment that permits collaborative work. These three things which were proposed by Davenport and Prusak (1998) imply that KMS can support an organization in planning for and dealing with emergencies. Many organizations are still wrestling with their knowledge management and failing to realize its full potential. This is due to their lack of the support of strong theoretical foundation to guide them in its implementation (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Unfortunately, many organizations do not have a clear knowledge management implementation plan in mind (Liebowitz, 1999). Therefore, in order for an organization to be victorious in its effort to manage knowledge, a guiding framework is essential. This is why in this part a review of diverse knowledge management implementation frameworks and models is presented. The framework consents to researchers as well as practitioners to measure the current state of knowledge management effectively and systematically. Thus, the knowledge management framework should provide not only a unified view of knowledge management phenomena but also help investigators study the field of knowledge management in an organized way. There have been few efforts to de velop a framework of knowledge management. However, none of the frameworks can provide a complete and generalized frame for knowledge management by defining fundamental attributes of knowledge management and their interrelationships because knowledge management can be viewed differently on ones background and interests (Chong, 2005). To know the exact value of knowledge management, an architecture of it, would provide the necessary understanding of different components like, knowledge management activities, knowledge management resources, knowledge management influences (Holsapple Joshi, 1997). The improvement of a framework is to follow and track the progress and maturity of knowledge management of an enterprise, so, it would serve to support the industry-wide improvement of knowledge management programs. Further more, it would provide an acceptable frame of reference for the assessment of the adequacies of an organization by government, commercial customers and prime contractors (Chong, 2005). The knowledge management frameworks can be classified under four categories (Table 2.2) Which are namely, knowledge creation framework, knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management, cases on knowledge management initiatives in industry and high-level knowledge management frameworks. Table 2.2: KM Frameworks and their examples in the literature Knowledge Management Frameworks Examples Knowledge Creation Framework Nonaka(1991, 1994), Nonaka Takeuchi (1995) Knowledge Cycle Processes of KM Bose Sugumaran (2003) Cases on KM Initiatives in Industry Apostolou Mentzas (1998), Lai chu (2002) High-Level KM Frameworks Holsapple Joshi (2002), Jarrar (2002), Wiig (1997) Nonaka and Takeuchi are tried to explain the progress and adaption between tacit and explicit knowledge. In fact, knowledge creation framework is not a knowledge management framework, the reason is, and it only deals with the creation of knowledge which is only a share of what constitutes knowledge management. Also, the knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management frameworks are providing a set of activities where the prominence is on the knowledge cycle processes or activities. They mainly address the phases of knowledge flow (from creation to application) in an organization without providing guidance on how to implement knowledge management. The framework on knowledge management initiatives in industry provide a reference to facilitate the structuring, analysis and evaluation of the knowledge management initiatives undertaken in various case companies. Lastly, High-Level knowledge management frameworks are the ones providing more detailed directions on the implementation of kn owledge management. This type of framework seems to address not only the question of what is but also how to because it prescribes and suggest ways for organizations to engage in knowledge management activities (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). In their review of literature, Wong and Aspinwall, try to have an organized review of the various available frameworks for knowledge management implementation. The acceptable thing for the review was to classify the knowledge management implementation frameworks, find out the short comings of each and finally suggesting a through guide line for developing knowledge management implementation frameworks. They have classified the high level knowledge management frameworks as frameworks such as: 1) System approach, 2) Step approach, 3) hybrid approach.(Table 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 shows the comparisons between frameworks under each approach). Table 2.3: Comparisons of system approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Holsapple Joshi (2002) Jarrar (2002) Gore Gore (1999) Wiig et al. (1997) Plan - Set strategic priority Define and understand knowledge Formulate vision Conceptualize Reflect Execute - - - Act Evaluate - - - Review Knowledge Types / resources Knowledge embedded in participants, culture, infrastructure, artifacts, purpose and strategy - Tacit Knowledge Explicit knowledge - KM processes / activities Acquire, select, internalize and use knowledge Collect, present, distribute and measure knowledge Mainly focuses on knowledge creation and externalization Develop, distribute, combine and consolidate knowledge KM influences / factors Resource influences, managerial influences, environmental influences Knowledge environment - External and internal developments ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.4: Comparisons of step approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) McCampbell et al. (1999) Wiig (1999) Plan Form powerful coalition Communicate vision of KM Establish teams for needs assessment Analyze the needs of KM Obtain management buy-in Survey and map the knowledge landscape Plan the knowledge strategy Create and define knowledge-related alternatives and potential initiatives Portray benefit expectations for knowledge management initiatives Set knowledge management priorities Determine key knowledge requirements Execute Identify and collect knowledge Design a technological structure Test the technology Maintenance of the technology Retest the technology Training of knowledge workers Roll out the use of KM practices Make systems go live Acquire key knowledge Create integrated knowledge transfer programs Transform, distribute and apply knowledge assets Establish and update a KM infrastructure Manage knowledge assets Construct incentive programs Coordinate KM activities and functions enterprise-wide Facilitate knowledge-focused management Evaluate Track usage Measure quality and productivity Measure the performance of KM practices Conduct a need assessment review Monitor knowledge management Knowledge type / resources Internal knowledge External knowledge Can be inferred from the step: â€Å" manage knowledge assets † KM processes / activities Identify and collect knowledge Acquire, transform, distribute and apply knowledge KM influences / factors - Can be inferred from the steps: ‘construct incentive programs and ‘facilitate knowledge-focused management ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.5: Comparisons of hybrid approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Rubenstein Montano et al. (2001) Mentzas (2001) Plan Strategize, Model Awareness plan Execute Act, Transfer Develop, operate Evaluate Revise Measurement Knowledge types / resources Tacit knowledge, Explicit knowledge Knowledge assets KM processes / activities KM tasks Process KM influences / factors Culture, Strategy, learning Strategy, Structure, System By study on these knowledge frameworks creator an absolute knowledge management implementation framework may include the possible accesses on success of knowledge management. Further more, the obstacles and developers should bear in their mind that if they want to analyze managers in regard with, which elements are likely to disrupt the knowledge management implementation success and which elements may enable their effort towards knowledge management achievements. Finally, a knowledge management implementation frame work should â€Å"make a correspondence view among social and technological approach to knowledge management†. Consideration of the authors demonstrate that most of the time this correspondence is disturb in favor of one approach while the other approach is either totally neglected or received incomplete attention (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Different types of knowledge resources are identified. The activities and processes which can help to manage them should be mentioned in the knowledge management implementation framework. As an example, there is some of knowledge management processes such as: acquiring, capturing, creating, organizing, storing, accessing, transferring, sharing, applying, distributing and using knowledge. The suggested clues by Wong and Aspinwall for developing a knowledge management implementation framework include five factors, which are as follows: (1) Incorporate a clear structure to organize the tasks. (2) Address the different knowledge resources or types. (3) Include the knowledge management processes or activities that manipulate the knowledge. (4) Point out the influences that can affect the performance of knowledge management. (5) Provide a balanced view between a technological and a social perspective. 2.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION 2.4.1 Knowledge Management System Definition Knowledge management system (KMS), are mostly IT based systems for managing knowledge in organizations and are used for supporting, creating, capturing and disseminating of information. The main concept of knowledge management system (KMS) is to make a facility for employees to have an access to the organizations information, sources, document base facts and their solutions. As a matter of fact a knowledge management system (KMS) could be any of the following things: Ø Social computing tools which can help to create a knowledge management system (KMS). Ø Knowledge management system (KMS), assist in creating network maps in organizations which is used in communication among individuals and entities. Ø Document based, any formatted that permits, control, manage. Ø Use Artificial Intelligence (AI), for customized representation schema to demonstrate the problem domain. Further more, the benefits of using knowledge management in organization can be categorized as: 1. Valuable organizational data and information sharing. 2. Reduce redundant work. 3. Decrease time for new incomers like new employees. 4. Retention of intellectual property. Based on this definition Gupta and Sharma (2004) divide knowledge management system into seven major categories, which are as follows (tables 2.6): Table 2.6: Example of KMS Source: Gupta and Sharma (2004) KMS Technology Description Expert Systems, artificial intelligence and knowledge based management system (KBMS) Main purpose of these systems is to capture knowledge and perform analysis on existing knowledge base to assist in decision making. Often associated to rule based and pattern recognition systems. Computer Supported Collaborative Work (Groupware) Systems that permit sharing and collaborative work. Often described synonymously to Lotus Notes. However, one could suggest that asynchronous (e-mail, wikis e-log) and synchronous systems (videoconference, chat) are newer applications that can fall into this category (Bates and Poole, 2003). Groupware can also include Group Support Systems (GSS) that is intended to support groups make decision (Mandviwalla, 1994). Document Management Systems Systems that support the need for managing text and images to make information much more accessible. Similar to the idea of office management systems i.e. use of various word documentation and spreadsheet software. Decision support systems (DSS) Business applications that usually contain summaries of large amounts of data, filtered and synthesized particularly to support strategic decision-making. View records related to this term5. The focus of DSS is on analysis of quantitative data and presentation tools for managers. Semantic Networks The focus is on systems that explain not just relationships between entities but the meaning based on how the entities are structured. Can be used to â€Å"represent domain knowledge explicitly and shared† (Gupta and Sharma, 2004). Relational and Object oriented databases Systems that permit management of both structured (relational) and much more complex data sets (OODBMS) Simulation tools Systems that run computer based simulations for a variety of purposes. 2.4.2 Knowledge Management Architecture Base on Gupta and Sharma (2004) findings, they suggest architecture for knowledge management which has seven levels and it is shown in table 2.7. Table 2.7: Overview of Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Form Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Level Key Activities Customer Knowledge Detailed, knowledge sharing relationships. Understanding the requirements of customers. Identifying new opportunities. Stakeholder Relationships Becoming a better knowledge flows among suppliers, shareholders, employees, community, etc. Use this knowledge to inform key points strategies. Business Environment Insights Systematic environmental scanning including political, economic, technology, social and environmental trends. Competitor analysis. Market intelligence systems. Organizational Memory Knowledge sharing. Best practice databases. Directories of expertise. Online documents, procedures and discussion forums. Intranets. Knowledge in Processes Embedding knowledge into business processes and management. Decision-making. Knowledge in Products and Services Knowledge embedded in products. Surround products with knowledge, e.g., in user guides, and enhanced knowledge intensive services. Knowledge in People Knowledge-sharing fairs. Innovation workshops. Expert and learning networks. Communities of knowledge practice. As it shows above there is a seven layer for knowledge management architecture and each level related to a particular aspect of knowledge management. So, in this regard there is a summarization for this table which summarize the important part of this layers and compact it in just three layers, it is summarized in table 2.8 as follows: Table 2.8: Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Layer Level Brief Explanation Data Sources layer According to different data sources which are accessible within organizations, this layer has both internal and external data sources. As an example, data repository, email repository, databases. Knowledge Management Layer The processes of knowledge management layer include acquisition, refinement, storage, retrieval, distribution and presentation of required knowledge. An example would be a knowledge base which assists decision making processes during an emergency situation. Knowledge Presentation Layer This layer represents the interface that forms the basis of interaction between users and the system. This can be called a knowledge portal that can guide decision making in dealing with an emergency situation. The knowledge portal can be designed to support communication, collaboration and information sharing requirement. There is two more explanation in detailed view for knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process model. The most important part in knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process are capturing knowledge, create a new knowledge, share it and distribute it as it is shown in 2.1 and 2.2. 2.4.3 Performance of Information Technology (IT) in Knowledge Management System (KMS) Information Technology (IT), plays an important role in acquire, store, disseminate and manage knowledge than ever before. Alavi and Leidner (2001), proposed an admired framework, which can be used to analyze and test the role of Information technology (IT) in design and fulfillment of any Knowledge Management System (KMS). The table (2.9) which is adapted from Alavi and Leidner (2001), shows the different perspectives of knowledge management initiatives and knowledge management system (KMS), design particularly. Table 2.9: Knowledge Perspective and impact on KM and KMS Source: Alavi and Leidner (2001, p.11) Perspective Meaning Implication for KM Impact on KMS Role in IT Knowledge vis-à  -vis data and information Data is consider as a fact, raw numbers, information is processed/ contextual data/ interpreted data knowledge is personalized information e.g this would entail once experience and exposure. KM initiative should expose employees to relevant information and facilitate assimilation of information. KMS may not necessarily be different from an existing information system. The differences are that any KMS should help employees assimilate the information. Role of IT is to ensure KMS design permits information assimilation. Knowledge as a state of the mind Knowledge is ones state of knowing and understanding. KM initiative should provide an information base that enables individuals to recognize the existence of knowledge. This can enhance individual learning and understanding. Accessibility to where knowledge resides rather than to knowledge itself- i.e. provide a means to an end. This would include web and wireless access to knowledge base. Knowledge as an object Knowledge that is stored and subject to manipulation. KM initiative should permit development and management of knowledge base. IT can support KMS to gather, store, and disseminate knowledge. This would include the use collaborative tools e.g. wikis. Knowledge as a process Knowledge visualized as a process of applying expertise. KM initiative should focus on effective flow of knowledge within the realms of knowledge creation, sharing and dissemination. by providing links to various knowledge sources which includes internal and external sources. This would include use of web based systems, hyperlinks, markup languages and access to databases. The idea is to offer a wider breadth and depth of knowledge flows Knowledge and accessibility to information Knowledge is a condition of access to information. KM initiative should provide ease of access to and retrieval of content in a given system. IT can be used to enhance indexing, query and locating relevant information. Knowledge as a capability As a capability knowledge has the potential to influence action. KM initiative should focus on developing core competencies and understanding the strategic intent of the initiative. It can increase the intellectual capital through development of individual and organizational competencies. Table 2.9 proposed that Information technology plays an important role in knowledge management initiatives in organizations. Alavi and Leidner (2001) defined a knowledge management system (KMS) as IT- based system develop to support and enhance the organizational processes of knowledge creation. They observe that not all knowledge management initiatives will implement an IT solution, but they support IT as an enabler of knowledge management (Raman, M. Muthaiyah, S.). In addition, knowledge management system (KMS) can assist organizations in dealing with dynamic and complex situations such as emergencies (Gupta Sharma, 2004). 2.4.4 Appropriate Theories to Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) This part consists of two theories which can help to design and implement decisions of any knowledge management systems (KMS) to support knowledge management in organizations. Those mentioned theories are, Information Processing Theory (IPT), and, Contingency Theory. 2.4.4.1 Information Processing Theory (IPT) George A. Miller (1956), has afforded two theoretical ideas which are the basic concepts of the information processing framework and cognitive psychology. The first approach is â€Å"chunking† and the capacity of short term memory. He insists that short term memory can get just 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). A chunk could refer to digits, words, peoples faces or any other meaningful units. The second idea which Miller was mentioned is people process information akin to a computerized system. They take input into the memory like the computer, then the human minds take the information, analyze it, store the content and locate it in the best situation of memory and then retrieve as and when needed based on the given situation. In this context, Burnell (2004), state that:†As diversity of resources, processes or outputs increase inter process coordination requirements and system complexity increase. As uncertainty increases, information processing requirements increases become of managements inability to predict every situation.† Information processing theory is widely applied in the study of human learning and cognitive styles (Miller, 1960). As a matter of fact Information Processing Theory (IPT) has some principles which are often applied by instructors for the following reasons: Ø Gain the students attention Ø Point out important and critical chunks of information, separating them from trivial ones. Ø Provide opportunities for students in linking new to existing information. Ø Presenting information in clear manner. Ø Emphasize on meaning of information i.e. not memorizing them. Actually, those mentioned principles for information processing theory can be applied to design of knowledge management system (KMS) to support emergency preparedness as well (Kostman, 2004). Particularly, in approaching emergency situations, knowledge management system can be elaborated to enable decision makers to: Ø Retrieve information that is critical, quickly. Ø Focus on the situation without being loss amidst voluminous information. Ø Create and share a knowledge base by linking past experience to existing information base. Ø Structure emergency related information clearly. Ø Understand different meaning and interpretation of critical terminology used in dealing with an emergency. 2.4.4.2 Contingency Theory Contingency theory was founded by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), in the study of ten firms in plastic, food, containers, which are three different i

Behaviourism And The Psychodynamic Approach Psychology Essay

Behaviourism And The Psychodynamic Approach Psychology Essay Behaviourism is mostly about observable behaviours and views how learning is through association, seen in Classical Conditioning and through behaviour reinforcement, as in Operant Conditioning (B F Skinner, 1938). The Psychodynamic Approach (Sigmund Freud, writing between the 1890s and the 1930s) views all behaviours as being controlled by thought processes of the mind. (Cardwell et al. 2004) Behaviourism primarily looks at behaviours that can be seen, and states that we are born with a mind like an empty wipe board (tabula rasa) and all of our behaviours are acquired from what goes on around us in our environment (McLeod. 2007). The following outlines two learning theories. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that occurs through association. An unconditioned stimulus results in an unconditioned response, and the theory is that the same response can be evoked by a conditioned stimulus. (Learning Theories Knowledgebase. 2012). Operant conditioning is about learning through reinforcement (positive or negative rewards and punishment) from the environment. Learning is a progressive activity that starts by rewarding behaviour that is associated to any wanted outcome (Cardwell et al. 2004). This happens quite naturally without any awareness, for example in praising children for milestone achievements like using the potty. One key research study of learning theories is classical conditioning and Ivan Pavlovs Dog experiment (1927). This involved investigating how the dogs learnt through association. The following stages were used, with the repetition of the unconditioned with the conditioned stimulus being used together. In the first stage, before conditioning, when the dogs are given the unconditioned stimulus (dog food) this results in salivation, the unconditioned response this is a natural response. In the next stage, the conditioned stimulus (the bell) was introduced with the unconditioned stimulus (dog food) and the dogs salivated, the unconditioned response. In the final stage, once the conditioned stimulus (the bell) was introduced without the dog food, the dogs still salivated, the conditioned response not a natural response for a bell being given at meal times instead of food (Atherton. 2011). Generalisation can also be seen in classical conditioning, as the conditioned stimulus, the bell in this case, could be changed to a bell with a different sound and the conditioned response would remain; although it would however weaken over a period of time, if the bell continuously changed (Gross. 1988). An example of everyday classical conditioning would be through the use of advertising. An advertisement comes on the television for a bar of chocolate which you love. This arouses a feeling of hunger and craving for some chocolate. One of psychologys most important contributions of behaviourism was the theory of classical conditioning. Behavioural therapies came about in the 1950s as a result of this and many treatments are used today for mental health; behaviour moderation; phobias, and anxiety related conditions (Cardwell et al. 2004). Positive and negative reinforcement in operant conditioning has also been extremely useful when working with children who have additional needs or autistic spectrum disorders, as it enables maladaptive behaviour to be modified or reshaped. Government guidelines implemented within policies and procedures in childcare settings, have been based around the perspectives of behaviourism (Tassoni et al. 2010). However, as the scientific experiments applied the use of animals in controlled laboratory conditions, this limits findings relevant to the real-life situations of humans, so is reductionist. Behaviourism does not take into account actions of the mind either, so psychology as a science is unable to analyse anything it cannot openly observe. (McLeod. 2007). Other arguments are that some therapies will fail once treatments stop, as in aversion therapy, and in the treatment of flooding the individual needs to be in good health and if they were to be removed from treatment too early, it would lead to further reinforcement of the phobia they went in for in the first place (Cardwell et al. 2004). .The psychodynamic approach (Sigmund Freud 1856 -1939) believes that behaviour is part of unconscious thought processes and is imbedded by our childhood experiences. Stricker and Widiger (2003) talk about layers of the mind; the conscious, imagined as the smallest part the tip of an iceberg, where all present awareness is; the preconscious, a larger part just below the water line of an iceberg, where memories and thoughts can be accessed easily by the conscious, and the unconscious, the largest part of an iceberg that is well immersed below the water, where repressed memories and inappropriate desires are held unavailable to us. Freud describes personality as being structured in to three different parts: Id, present from birth, works on instinct and the principals of pleasure; Ego, at age one three years, keeps in touch with the real world and satisfies the Id in a realistic, appropriate way; and Superego, age three six years, where our morality oversees our personality in relati on to our environment. According to Freud, another key aspect of theory is that of psychosexual development. The stages of this theory are the Oral stage, where the mouth is the first area of pleasure; the Anal stage, where the second area of pleasure is the anus this stage is important around toilet training, and the Phallic stage, where the focus of pleasure is with the genitals. This stage also encounters gender identity development and the Oedipus complex (where boys become attracted to their mothers and fearful of their fathers). If too much or too little satisfaction is received through these stages, we become obsessed and persist with the same demands during the rest of our life, resulting in neurotic behaviours (Cardwell et al. 2004). One key study by Freud (1909) was on Little Hans, the child of a friend of Freud whom he never actually met. He was five years old. He became fearful of horses to the extent that he would no longer go in to the street. White horses, that wore blinkers and had black colouring around the mouth, were feared most. As Hans was in the phallic stage of his development and therefore in the Oedipus Complex, according to Freud, the belief was that he was actually afraid of his father not the horses. This assumption was reached as Hans father wore glasses; these could be associated with the blinkers, and he also had a moustache; this could represent the black around the horses mouth. (Cardwell and Flanagan. 2004) The progression of Psychotherapy has been a substantial contribution of the psychodynamic approach, as Freuds psychoanalytical therapy, which sees mild psychiatric disorders in adults such as anxiety and eating disorders, and some depressions, as deeply hidden childhood problems. Patients are helped by creating an ideal environment in which to draw out these concerns into the conscious mind, where they can then be explored, tackled and resolved. Disadvantages of psychodynamic therapies are that treatment can be over many years and is therefore expensive and unrealistic. Therapies are not suitable for all psychological disorders, mainly just those that come under neuroses. Also, uncovering the past can cause more emotional stress than the current problem holds for the patient. Behaviourism has contributed to therapies that we still use today. One of the therapies based on classical conditioning is Systematic Desensitisation (Wolpe. 1958). This method helps with phobias and anxieties by using deep relaxation and replacing a fearful reaction with a response that is unable to exist with fear. Another therapy is Implosion and Flooding where the individuals phobic object is revealed with no reduction in anxiety and no relaxation. The purpose is that high levels of anxiety cannot be maintained for a long period of time, so start to diminish along with the realisation that nothing bad has happened to them, so the fear should dissipate. A technique called Aversion Therapy is also based on classical conditioning and is used to remove unwanted behaviours like alcoholism, smoking and drug addiction. These behaviours are associated with an unpleasant stimulus in an attempt to remove them. For instance, a cigarette may have a nausea-inducing substance which in turn pai rs the feeling of nausea with tobacco. Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy is widely used and elements of it originate from behaviourism. It looks at the individuals beliefs and rational or irrational thought patterns and then the consequences of these, if desirable or undesirable emotions come about leading to desirable or undesirable behaviour. Once these have been recognised, the therapist and the client work on the issues together. (Gross. 1987) Contributions of the psychodynamic approach include Free Association, in which the individual allows feelings, thoughts and images to free-flow, with the therapist out of sight who will interrupt occasionally to get reflections with the implications of the associations. The theory is that the internal conflict will reveal itself in the associations. Boker (1992) believes psychodynamic therapy is also helpful to patients will schizophrenia, whilst taking phenothiazines, as this medication enables them to be more available (Cardwell et al. 2004). Another contribution is Play Therapy, characterised by Sweeney and Landreth (2003) as child-centred play therapy. The therapists objective is to allow the child to release their inner disturbances by bringing out the experiences through play rather than being the victim (McMonigle. 2008). It can be seen therefore that behaviourists treat existing problems; whereas in contrast, the psychodynamic approach wants to find the route of the problem. Both of these approaches have influenced modern practices.

USA English Language :: Communication, World Language

It is accepted that the use of English language has increased steadily in the last 50 years all over the world. English language is important for travelling involves package holidays, sporting occasions, business meetings, international conventions, military occupations, academic conferences and transportation and lodgings (Crystal 2003). Some people believe that the USA economic power influenced spread of English by majority of institutions and other areas, such as UN, Hollywood and TV programmes. On the other hand, other people claim that language of English already have been used by majority of countries which is colony (Crystal 2003). This essay will firstly describe how economic power of the USA influence on spread of English to the world. Secondly, essay will point out opposing arguments that the colony of Britain. This essay will argue and indicate that truth of situation that the US English is the dominate world language nowadays. This economic power influenced institutions and organization and another area. First of all, significant number of institutions such as UN (United Nations) and IMF (International Monetary Fund), WB (World Bank) is managed their language by US English. Crystal (1997, p8) describes how â€Å"85% of international organizations now use English as one of their working language†. Therefore, 99% of European organizations are made a recent yearbook of international associations by English (Graddol, 1997). Therefore, it is clear insistence that US English is dominant world language and it affect in politician and economic of significant number of countries. In addition, there are corroborating evidence which is English of the USA is predominance globally. In 1951, Civil Aviation Organization agreed that English should be the international language for pilots and controllers (Crystal, 2003). This means that if more than one language were in use, it may cause misunderstanding. Consequently, hazard of accident would be existed. For example, in 1977, there is fearful cases the crash of two Boeing 747`s in Tenerife (Crystal, 2003). This figure indicates that US English is existed as international language closely in our living. Besides, it is believe that Internet facilitate to extend USA language. According to Crystal (2001) said that 64% of Internet hosts are to be found in the USA. Moreover, Crystal (2001, p121) pointed out: To study molecular genetics, all you need to get into Harvard University Library, the Internet and World Wide Web really only work as great unifiers if you speak English. These evidences also indicate that the dominance of the language is verbal communication of USA.

Ovids Devaluation of Sympathy in Metamorphoses Essay -- Ovid Metamorp

Ovid's Devaluation of Sympathy in Metamorphoses  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   Ovid reveals two similar tales of incest in the Metamorphoses. First, he describes the non-sisterly love Byblis acquires for her twin brother Caunus. Later, he revisits the incestuous love theme with the story of Myrrha who develops a non-filial love for her father, Cinyras. The two accounts hold many similarities and elicit varying reactions. Ovid constantly tugs at our emotions and draws forth alternating feelings of pity and disgust for the matters at hand. "Repetition with a difference" in these two narratives shows how fickle we can be in allotting and denying sympathy, making it seem less valuable. Both tales begin drawing forth a sense of disgust for the situation in general yet arousing pity for each girl's predicament. Ovid clearly labels the love Byblis and Myrrha pursue illegitimate when he summarizes the moral of Byblis' tale stating, "when girls love they should love lawfully" (Mandelbaum 307) and reveals that "to hate a father is / a crime, but love like [Myrrha's] is worse than hate" (338) before describing Myrrha's tale. By presenting the girls as criminals, Ovid leads us to despise them. He then proceeds to draw out sympathy for Byblis and Myrrha as he describes their unsuccessful attempts to overcome these desires. Byblis dreams intimately about Caunus, but "when she's awake, she does not dare / to let her obscene hopes invade her soul" (308). "[Myrrha] strives; she tries; she would subdue / her obscene love," but she cannot (339). Right away, Ovid makes us question if these situations deserve our sympathy. Byblis and Myrrha compel readers to sympathize with their plight as they orally confess their incestuous passions. They use selective lang... ...d leaves us feeling sorry for Myrrha. Ovid tells this tale of forbidden sin twice to show how inconsistent we are in allotting pity. He begins both tales drawing forth our contempt for the matters at hand, then ends both tales with images that arouse our pity. Throughout each story, our emotions sway between pity and disgust. Even though incest disgusts us, we sympathize with Byblis and Myrrha as they seek incestuous loves. Byblis' broken heart arouses our sympathy, yet Myrrha's "fulfilled heart" disgusts us. Ovid devalues our sympathy by showing how unstable we are with our emotions. Works Cited Mandelbaum, Allen, trans. The Metamorphoses of Ovid. By Ovid. San Diego: Harcourt Brace & company, 1993. Crane, Gregory, ed. Perseus Project. 1995. Tufts University. 6 Oct. 1999 <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/text?lookup=ov.+met.+init>      

Character Analysis of Yusef Komunyakaa “Facing It” Essay

Thesis Statement: * Topic- Yusef Komunyakaa â€Å"Facing It† * Critical Opinion-Viewing the Vietnam Veterans Memorial often brings back many real and uneasy memories for a Vietnam Veteran. * Blueprint- 1. Experienced 2. Emotionally scarred 3.Reflective Outline Thesis Statement: As a veteran of the Vietnam War, Yusef Komunyakaa revisited the experiences and pain of having been in one of the most difficult wars in US History. I. Komunyakaa, again, experiences the sights, the memories of things that happened years ago. A. The friends that were made there and then lost. B. Experiences blend in a twisted tangle in his mind. C. His experience cannot be separated from who he is. II. As Yusef Komunyakaa goes down the list of names he half expects to find his name. A. He wants to be stone; to be able to be solid, to show no emotion. B. His scares are deep and painful. C. These experiences are still so real that he cannot free himself from them. III. Yusef Komunyakaa began to reflect on all the things that had been pushed from his mind for years. A. Yusef Komunyakaa’s reflection takes him back into the blackness of the war B. It becomes clear that everything in the present reflects the pain in his past. C. This visit to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial causes him to reflect on things that were very painful. Gerald Smith Ms. Brooks COMP 1023 Feb. 4, 2013 As a young man goes off to war there are often preparations for the possible loss of life, whether it is added life insurance, loss of income insurance, or just making sure that loved ones are taken care of. What are often overlooked are the losses that occur when the soldiers return home. In his poem â€Å"Facing It,† Yusef Komunyakaa, writes about the struggles of living after his experiences during the Vietnam War. As a veteran of the Vietnam War, Yusef Komunyakaa revisits the experiences and pain of having been in one of the most difficult wars in US History, as he visits the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Viewing the Vietnam Veterans Memorial often brings back many real and uneasy memories for a Vietnam Veteran. In â€Å"Facing It† he shows that he has, experienced the pain of war; been scared by war, and reflected on the results of war. Many years later many of these experiences still return in haunting vivid detail. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial brings back many experiences in very real, life-like detail. Komunyakaa, again, experiences the sights, the memories of things that happened years ago. â€Å"The booby trap’s white flash† (Komunyakaa 847) that killed Andrew Johnson. The experience of being there, seeing first-hand the atrocities of war. The friends that were made there and then lost. As these things are relived, the experiences, while old, become new again. These experiences blend in a twisted tangle in his mind. He sees woman trying to erase the names (Komunyakaa 847) possibly much like he tried to erase the experiences from his mind. The names remain, the experience cannot be erased. With eyes â€Å"like a bird of pray† (Komunyakaa 847) he watches himself in the reflection of his past. He sees that his experience cannot be separated from who he is. The stone represents the war; depending on how the light hit it he is still in it. The emotional scars are so real that as Yusef Komunyakaa goes down the list of names he is â€Å"half expecting to find my own† (Komunyakaa 847). He realizes that in a way he too was a casualty of the war. Although he was not physically killed, a part of him was dead (or at least wanted to be). These experiences are still so real, so fresh, that he cannot free himself from them. He wants to be stone; to be able to be solid, to show no emotion. He had promised himself that he would not cry (Komunyakaa 847), and yet there he was fighting back the tears. His scares are deep and painful; no way to escape his own penetrating gazes; his own demons that haunt him from the memory of this war. As he looks at the names, he sees a white vet in front of him; he has lost his right arm in the stone, much as Komunyakaa has lost so much in the war. Facing the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Wall, Yusef Komunyakaa began to reflect on all the things that had been pushed from his mind for years. His face blending into the black granite, Yusef Komunyakaa’s reflection takes him back into the blackness of the war (847). He sees that he is still fighting a war that had ended decades before. As he paces before the Vietnam Veterans War Memorial, it becomes clear that everything in the present reflects the pain in his past. The buddies lost; the innocence of youth torn from the young men and women as they struggle to fulfill the demands of their country. As he watches, a lady brushes a boy’s hair, yet he sees the cutting wings of a plane as it is on a bomb run (Komunyakaa 847). This visit to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial causes him to reflect on things that were very painful. He didn’t run, but became part of the memorial, as the shadows take him from an observer to inside the stone, inside the war; he had been trying to escape from (Komunyakaa 847). Yusef Komunyakaa has shown that the experiences that he lives with daily closely reflect the things that he experienced during the Vietnam War. The things of everyday life often cause the memories to come flooding back. As he views the memorial many graphic and disturbing memories come roaring back. Standing at the memorial, he becomes lost in the granite wall (Komunyakaa 847). He deals with the emotions, the sights, the experiences as he reflects on the things that have happened so long ago. Although it has been years since his comrade had been killed, he sees everything clearly. The emotional scars are deep and long lasting. Komunyakaa experiences a torrent of painful memories as he stands at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, â€Å"Facing It.† Work Cited Yusef Komunyakaa. â€Å"Facing It.† Literature: An introduction to Reading and Writing. Ed. Edgar V. Roberts and Robert Zweig. 10th ed. New York: Pearson Longman. 2012. 847. Print.

“All the Pretty Horses”

In William Gilding's Lord of the Flies and Corm McCarthy All the Pretty Horses, the harassers have experiences with death and are victims of mature circumstance which lead them to ultimate moral reconciliation. Death is not a topic to be taken lightly, which the characters of Lord of the Flies by William Gilding discover, Stranded, adult-less, on a deserted Island, the boys In the novel have a growing subconscious fear of a beast on the Island.When one character, Simon, discovers that the beast is nothing but the darkness within each of them, he races to tell the group and is unfortunately mistaken for the beast. The boys lump upon Simon, beating him with sticks and ultimately forcing him off a cliff his death. The boys discover they have the power to kill upon Simony's death, causing them to reassess their strengths and abilities as a group of savages. Similarly, All the Pretty Horses by Corm McCarthy touches upon death and the forced self- assessment It provokes In a character.Prot agonist John Grady Cole gets In a physical fight while spending time at a penitentiary In Mexico. In an effort to save himself, Cole stabs his offender in the heart and, â€Å"the chiseler's knife clattered on the floor. From the red boutonnià ¨re blossoming on the left pocket of his [the cochlear] blue ark shirt there spurted a thin fan of bright arterial blood. He dropped to his knees and pitched forward dead into the arms of his enemy' (McCarthy 201). Cole, only sixteen years old, is forced to reassess his strength and necessary abilities in order to survive this fight.His exposure to death, much like that of the characters of Lord of the Flies, signifies a new stage in life, a new outlook, and a reassessment of how things are handled and how one reacts to certain things. Both Gilding and McCarthy utilize death as a tool to force characters to re;assess their motives, strengths, and moieties even sanity. Gilding's Lord of the Flies also stresses the abandonment of Innocence thr ough experience. By the novel's close, protagonist Ralph has seen two friends die, the rest descend into savagery, and himself capable of going insane, experiencing pain, and inflicting pain unto others.When the boys are finally rescued by chance from the Island, â€Å"Ralph wept for the end of Innocence, the darkness of man's heart, and the fall through the air of a true, wise friend called Plugs; (Gilding 202). Rally's, and the other characters', exposure to savagery and parting with innocence give not only homeless but the reader a sense of moral reconciliation. Ralph realizes that things and weeps for his inability to be blind to his surroundings and his inability to control them. He learns that although one can try to make the best of a situation and make every effort to maintain control and order, things do not always go as planned.Likewise, McCarthy All the Pretty Horses teaches its protagonist, John Grady Cole, the same lesson. Cole Journeys to Mexico in search of the glori fied cowboy life many tried to get a hold of at the time, and returns home having lost a close friend, killed another human being, and heartbroken at being unable to be with the girl he loved. Upon his return, Cole does not have the innocence he set out with because his experiences and the circumstances under which they occurred have opened his eyes.He is made to reconsider what he values, and settles with himself what his morals are, and what he believes in and stands for. All the Pretty Horses and Lord of the Flies force their characters and readers to learn a lesson, to reconcile their morals and values, and get a taste of extreme experience and circumstance. Experiencing the death of a friend and being forced to act maturely due to resistance led characters in William Gildings Lord of the Flies and Corm McCarthy All the Pretty Horses to self reassessment and moral understanding.While often times coming to this point includes a happy close, the novels display a different angle, a lesson learned without the fairytale ending the reader is so much hoping for. Moral reconciliation and the ability to assess oneself comes with maturity, and the authors of Lord of the Flies and All the Pretty Horses prove that sometimes obtaining this maturity comes at a heavy and painful cost in parting with one's innocence.